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  • Non-Deterministic Finite Automation
    • Introduction to Compiler
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    • Program Translations
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    • Programming Language Basics
    • Minimisation of DFAs
    • Explicit Access Control
    • Parameter Passing Mechanisms
    • Introduction to Lexical Analysis
    • Regular expressions
    • Short hands
    • Nondeterministic finite automata
    • Converting a regular expression to an NFA
    • Deterministic finite automata
    • Converting an NFA to a DFA
    • The subset construction
    • Dead states
    • Lexers and lexer generators
    • Splitting the input stream
    • Lexical errors
    • Properties of regular languages
    • Limits to expressive power
    • The Role of the Lexical Analyzer
    • Input Buffering
    • Specification of Tokens
    • Operations on Languages
    • Regular Definitions and Extensions
    • Recognition of Tokens
    • The Lexical-Analyzer Generator Lex
    • Finite Automata
    • Construction of an NFA from a Regular Expression
    • Efficiency of String-Processing Algorithms
    • The Structure of the Generated Analyzer
    • Optimization of DFA-Based Pattern Matchers

  • Basic Parsing Techniques
    • Introduction to Syntax analysis
    • Context-free grammars
    • Writing context free grammars
    • Derivation
    • Syntax trees and ambiguity
    • Operator precedence
    • Writing ambiguous expression grammars
    • Other sources of ambiguity
    • Syntax analysis and Predictive parsing
    • Nullable and FIRST
    • Predictive parsing revisited
    • FOLLOW
    • LL(1) parsing
    • Methods for rewriting grammars for LL(1) parsing
    • SLR parsing
    • Constructions of SLR parse tables
    • Conflicts in SLR parse-tables
    • Using precedence rules in LR parse tables
    • Using LR-parser generators
    • Properties of context-free languages
    • Introduction to Syntax-Directed Translator
    • Evaluating an SDD at the Nodes of a Parse Tree
    • Evaluation Orders for SDD\'s
    • Ordering the Evaluation of Attributes
    • A larger example of calculating FIRST and FOLLOW
    • Syntax Definition
    • Associativity of Operators
    • Parse Trees
    • Ambiguity
    • Syntax-Directed Translation
    • Synthesized Attributes
    • Tree Traversals
    • Parsing
    • Predictive Parsing
    • Use e-Productions
    • Translator for Simple Expressions
    • Semantic Rules with Controlled Side Effects
    • Applications of Syntax-Directed Translation
    • The Structure of a Type of syntax
    • Switch-Statements
    • Syntax-Directed Translation Schemes
    • Postfix Translation Schemes
    • SDT\'s With Actions Inside Productions
    • Eliminating Left Recursion from SDT\'s
    • SDT\'s for L-Attributed Definitions
    • Implementing L-Attributed SDD\'s
    • On-The-Fly Code Generation
    • L-Attributed SDD\'s and LL Parsing
    • Bottom-Up Parsing of L-Attributed SDD\'s

  • Syntax-directed Translation
    • Register Allocation and Assignment
    • Semantic Analysis
    • Introduction to Intermediate Code Generation
    • Variants of Syntax Trees
    • Variants of Syntax Trees
    • The Value-Number Method for Constructing DAG\'s
    • Three-Address Code
    • Quadruples
    • Triples
    • Static Single-Assignment Form
    • Types and Declarations
    • Type Equivalence
    • Sequences of Declarations
    • Translation of Expressions
    • Incremental Translation
    • Addressing Array Elements
    • Translation of Array References
    • Type Checking
    • Type Conversions
    • Overloading of Functions and Operators
    • Type Inference and Polymorphic Functions
    • Algorithm for Unification
    • Control Flow
    • Flow-of-Control Statements
    • Control-Flow Translation of Boolean Expressions
    • Boolean Values and Jumping Code
    • Back patching
    • Backpatching for Boolean Expressions
    • Flow-of-Control Statements
    • Break-, Continue-, and Goto-Statements
    • Introduction to Run-Time Environments
    • Stack Allocation of Space
    • Activation Records
    • Calling Sequences
    • Variable-Length Data on the Stack
    • Access to Nonlocal Data on the Stack
    • Displays
    • Heap Management
    • Locality in Programs
    • Reducing Fragmentation
    • Managing and Coalescing Free Space
    • Manual Deallocation Requests
    • Reachability
    • Introduction to Garbage Collection
    • Reference Counting Garbage Collectors
    • Introduction to Trace-Based Collection
    • Basic Abstraction
    • Optimizing Mark-and-Sweep
    • Mark-and-Compact Garbage Collectors
    • Copying collectors
    • Short-Pause Garbage Collection
    • Incremental Reachability Analysis
    • Partial-Collection Basics
    • The Train Algorithm
    • Parallel and Concurrent Garbage Collection
    • Partial Object Relocation
    • Introduction Code Generation
    • Issues in the Design of a Code Generator
    • Instruction Selection
    • Register Allocation
    • The Target Language
    • Addresses in the Target Code
    • Stack Allocation
    • Run-Time Addresses for Names
    • Basic Blocks and Flow Graphs
    • Basic Blocks
    • Next-Use Information
    • Representation of Flow Graphs
    • Optimization of Basic Blocks
    • Dead Code Elimination
    • Representation of Array References
    • Pointer Assignments and Procedure Calls
    • A Simple Code Generator
    • The Code-Generation Algorithm
    • Design of the Function getReg
    • Peephole Optimization
    • Algebraic Simplification and Reduction in Strength
    • Register Assignment for Outer Loops
    • Instruction Selection by Tree Rewriting
    • Code Generation by Tiling an Input Tree
    • Pattern Matching by Parsing
    • General Tree Matching
    • Optimal Code Generation for Expressions
    • Evaluating Expressions with an Insufficient Supply of Registers
    • Dynamic Programming Code-Generation

  • Data Flow Analysis
    • The Lazy-Code-Motion Algorithm
    • Introduction to Machine-Independent Optimizations
    • The Dynamic Programming Algorithm
    • The Principal Sources of Optimization
    • Semantics-Preserving Transformations
    • Copy Propagation
    • Induction Variables and Reduction in Strength
    • Introduction to Data-Flow Analysis
    • The Data-Flow Analysis Schema
    • Reaching Definitions
    • Live-Variable Analysis
    • Available Expressions
    • Foundations of Data-Flow Analysis
    • Transfer Functions
    • The Iterative Algorithm for General Frameworks
    • Meaning of a Data-Flow Solution
    • Constant Propagation
    • Transfer Functions for the Constant-Propagation Framework
    • Partial-Redundancy Elimination
    • The Lazy-Code-Motion Problem
    • Loops in Flow Graphs
    • Depth-First Ordering
    • Back Edges and Reducibility
    • Natural Loops
    • Speed of Convergence of Iterative Data-Flow Algorithms
    • Region-Based Analysis
    • Necessary Assumptions About Transfer Functions
    • An Algorithm for Region-Based Analysis
    • Handling Non-reducible Flow Graphs
    • Symbolic Analysis
    • Data-Flow Problem Formulation
    • Region-Based Symbolic Analysis

  • Code Generation
    • Introduction to Software Pipelining of Loops
    • Matrix Multiply: An In-Depth Example
    • Software Pipelining of Loops
    • Introduction Instruction-Level Parallelism
    • Multiple Instruction Issue
    • A Basic Machine Model
    • Code-Scheduling Constraints
    • Finding Dependences Among Memory Accesses
    • Phase Ordering Between Register Allocation and Code Scheduling
    • Speculative Execution Support
    • Basic-Block Scheduling
    • List Scheduling of Basic Blocks
    • Global Code Scheduling
    • Upward Code Motion
    • Updating Data Dependences
    • Advanced Code Motion Techniques
    • Software Pipelining
    • Register Allocation and Code Generation
    • A Software-Pipelining Algorithm
    • Scheduling Cyclic Dependence Graphs
    • Improvements to the Pipelining Algorithms
    • Conditional Statements and Hardware Support for Software Pipelining
    • Basic Concepts of Parallelism and Locality
    • Parallelism in Applications
    • Loop-Level Parallelism
    • Introduction to Affine Transform Theory
    • Optimizations
    • Iteration Spaces
    • Affine Array Indexes
    • Controlling the Order of Execution
    • Changing Axes
    • Intermediate Code for Procedures
    • Data Reuse
    • Self Reuse
    • Self-Spatial Reuse
    • Array Data-Dependence Analysis
    • Integer Linear Programming
    • Heuristics for Solving Integer Linear Programs
    • Solving General Integer Linear Programs
    • Finding Synchronization-Free Parallelism
    • Affine Space Partitions
    • Space-Partition Constraints
    • Solving Space-Partition Constraints
    • A Simple Code-Generation Algorithm
    • Eliminating Empty Iterations
    • Synchronization Between Parallel Loops
    • The Parallelization Algorithm and Hierarchical Time
    • Pipelining
    • Solving Time-Partition Constraints by Farkas' Lemma
    • Code Transformations
    • Parallelism With Minimum Synchronization
    • Locality Optimizations
    • Partition Interleaving
    • Putting it All Together
    • Uses of Affine Transforms
    • Interprocedural Analysis
    • Context Sensitivity
    • Cloning-Based Context-Sensitive Analysis
    • Importance of Interprocedural Analysis
    • SQL Injection
    • A Logical Representation of Data Flow
    • Execution of Datalog Programs
    • Problematic Datalog Rules
    • A Simple Pointer-Analysis Algorithm
    • Flow Insensitivity
    • Context-Insensitive Interprocedural Analysis
    • Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis
    • Adding Context to Datalog Rules
    • Datalog Implementation by BDD's
    • Relational Operations as BDD Operations

Branch : Computer Science and Engineering
Subject : Compiler design
Unit : Basic Parsing Techniques

Tree Traversals


Introduction: There are many different applications of trees and are many different algorithms for manipulating them. . Tree traversals will be used for describing attribute evaluation and for specifying the execution of code fragments in a translation scheme. A traversal of a tree starts at the root and visits each node of the tree in some order. However, many of the different tree algorithms have in common the characteristic that they systematically visit all the nodes in the tree. That is, the algorithm walks through the tree data structure and performs some computation at each node in the tree. This process of walking through the tree is called a tree traversal.

A depth-first traversal starts at the root and recursively visits the children of each node in any order, not necessarily from left to right. It is called "depth-first" because it visits an unvisited child of a node whenever it can, so it visits nodes as far away from the root (as "deep") as quickly as it can. The procedure visit (N) in Fig. 2.11 is a depth first traversal that visits the children of a node in left-to-right order, as shown in Fig. 2.12. In this traversal, we have included the action of evaluating translations at each node, just before we finish with the node (that is, after translations at the children have surely been computed). In general, the actions associated with a traversal can be whatever we choose or nothing at all.

A syntax-directed definition does not impose any specific order for the evaluation of attributes on a parse tree; any evaluation order that computes an attribute a after all the other attributes that a depends on is acceptable. Synthesized attributes can be evaluated during any bottom-up traversal, that is, a traversal that evaluates attributes at a node after having evaluated attributes at its children. In general, with both synthesized and inherited attributes, the matter of evaluation order is quite complex; see Section 5.2.

Translation Schemes: The syntax-directed definition in Fig. 2.10 builds up a translation by attaching strings as attributes to the nodes in the parse tree. We now consider an alternative approach that does not need to manipulate strings; it produces the same translation incrementally, by executing program fragments.

Translation Schemes: The syntax-directed definition in builds up a translation by attaching strings as attributes to the nodes in the parse tree. We now consider an alternative approach that does not need to manipulate strings; it produces the same translation incrementally, by executing program fragments.

Preorder and Post-order Traversals: Preorder and post-order traversals are two important special cases of depth-first traversals in which we visit the children of each node from left to right. Often, we traverse a tree to perform some particular action at each node. If the action is done when we first visit a node, then we may refer to the traversal as a preorder traversal. Similarly, if the action is done just before we leave a node for the last time, and then we say it is a postorder traversal of the tree. The procedure visit (N) in Fig. 2.11 is an example of a postorder traversal.

Preorder and postorder traversals define corresponding orderings on nodes, based on when the action at a node would be performed. The preorder of a (sub) tree rooted at node JV consists of N, followed by the preorders of the subtrees of each of its children, if any, from the left. The postorder of a (sub) tree rooted at TV" consists of the postorders of each of the subtrees for the children of N, if any, from the left, followed by N itself.

A syntax-directed translation scheme is a notation for specifying a translation by attaching program fragments to productions in a grammar. A translation scheme is like a syntax-directed definition, except that the order of evaluation of the semantic rules is explicitly specified. Program fragments embedded within production bodies are called semantic actions. The position at which an action is to be executed is shown by enclosing it between curly braces and writing it within the production body, as in

rest —> term {print(' ')} rest\

We shall see such rules when we consider an alternative form of grammar for expressions, where the nonterminal rest represents "everything but the first term of an expression." This form of grammar is discussed in Section 2.4.5. Again, the subscript in rest\ distinguishes this instance of nonterminal rest in the production body from the instance of rest at the head of the production. When drawing a parse tree for a translation scheme, we indicate an action by constructing an extra child for it, connected by a dashed line to the node that corresponds to the head of the production. For example, the portion of the parse tree for the above production and action is shown in Fig. 2.13. The node for a semantic action has no children, so the action is performed when that node is first seen.

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